Aeronautical Decision Making and Judgment#

aeronautical decision making (ADM)

A systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management.

Steps for good decision making:

  1. Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight.

  2. Learning behavior modification techniques.

  3. Learning how to recognize and cope with stress.

  4. Developing risk assessment skills.

  5. Using all resources.

  6. Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s ADM skills.

Risk Management#

Four Fundamental Principles#

  1. Accept no unnecessary risk. Flying inherently has some risk; don’t increase it.

  2. Make risk decisions at the appropriate level. You are the pilot-in-command; don’t let anyone else, ATC or passenger, make risk decisions for you.

  3. Accept risk when benefits outweigh dangers. For example, a day with good weather is a much better time to fly an unfamiliar airplane.

  4. Integrate risk management into planning at all levels. Not just in preflight planning, but in all stages of flight.

Risk Management Process#

  1. Identify hazards

  2. Assess risks

  3. Analyze controls

  4. Make control decisions

  5. Use controls

  6. Monitor results

Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)#

single pilot resource management (SRM)

The art and science of managing all the resources (both on-board the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a single pilot to ensure the successful outcome of a flight.

Concepts included:

  • aeronautical decision making (ADM)

  • risk management (RM)

  • task management ™

  • automation management (AM)

  • controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) awareness

  • situational awareness (SA)

hazard

A real or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot encounters.

risk

An assessment of the single or cumulative hazard facing a pilot.

human factors

Elements or factors affecting individuals decision making. Transcends education, experience, health, physiology, etc.

Hazardous attitudes and antidotes#

Hazardous attitude

Antidote

Anti-authority. “No one can tell me what to do.” May regard rules and regulations as silly and unnecessary.

Follow the rules. They are usually right.

Impulsivity. “Do it quickly.” People who feel the need to do something, anything, immediately.

Not so fast. Think first.

Invulnerability. “It won’t happen to me.” The invulnerable pilot is more likely to take chances.

It could happen to me.

Macho. “I can do it.” The macho pilot is a show-off who is trying to impress others.

Taking chances is foolish.

Resignation. “What’s the use?” The resigned pilot does not see himself as having control of his destiny.

I’m not helpless. I can make a difference.

Risk assessment models#

Likelihood of an event

  • Probable: an event will occur several times.

  • Occasional: an event will probably occur sometime.

  • Remote: an event is unlikely to occur, but is possible.

  • Improbable: an event is unlikely to occur.

Severity of an event

  • Catastrophic: results in fatalities, total loss

  • Critical: Severe injury, major damage

  • Marginal: minor injury, minor damage

  • Negligible: less than minor injury, less than minor system damage

Mitigating Risk#

IMSAFE#

  1. Illness: am I sick?

  2. Medication: am I taking any medications that might affect my judgment or make me drowsy?

  3. Stress: am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I have money, health, or family problems?

  4. Alcohol: have I been drinking within the last 8 or 24 hours?

  5. Fatigue: am I tired and not adequately rested?

  6. Emotion: am I emotionally upset?

PAVE#

  1. Pilot-in-command

    • Am I ready for this trip?

  2. Aircraft

    • Is this the right aircraft?

    • Am I familiar with the aircraft?

    • Is it equipped for the flight?

    • Can we use the intended runways?

    • Can it carry the required load?

  3. enVironment

    • Weather

      • Clouds, icing, winds, mountains, thunderstorms.

      • Forecast may be inaccurate or have changed.

    • Terrain

      • Determine safe altitudes during planning

    • Airport

      • What lights are available at the destination/alternates?

      • NOTAMs

    • Airspace

      • Adequate survival gear, if flying over remote areas and forced to down?

      • TFRs

    • Nighttime

      • Be prepared to fly IFR

      • Can you safely perform an emergency landing at night?

      • Carry two flashlights; one for preflight, and a dim one for the cockpit

  4. External pressures

    • Passengers waiting for your arrival or departure

    • Desire to impress someone

    • Personal goals (get-there-itis)

The 5 P’s#

  1. The Plan

    • The mission, or the task

  2. The Plane

    • The mechanics.

    • Includes database currency, automation status, emergency backup systems

  3. The Pilot

    • High altitudes, long trips requiring significant endurance, challenging weather.

    • Advanced avionics.

  4. The Passengers

    • Needs to get to a certain place by a certain time can pressure the pilot.

    • Make alternative plans for passengers, just-in-case.

    • Passengers can also be pilots. Make sure someone is designated as PIC to avoid conflict in decision-making.

    • Passengers can also make decisions. They may not feel comfortable with certain decisions.

  5. The Programming

    • All the fancy electronics can be distracting.

    • Plan when you’ll use these tools, and when you will not.

Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model#

Identify hazards.

  1. Perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight

  2. Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety

  3. Perform by implementing the best course of action

CARE checklist#

Review hazards and evaluate risks.

  1. Consequences: departing after a full workday creates fatigue and pressure

  2. Alternatives: delay until morning, reschedule, drive

  3. Reality: dangers and distractions of fatigue could lead to an accident

  4. External pressures: business meeting at destination might influence me

TEAM checklist#

Once you have perceived a hazard and processed its ipnact on flight safety, it is time to perform.

  1. Transfer: Should the risk decison be transferred to someone else (e.g., consult the chief flight instructor)?

  2. Eliminate: Is there a way to eliminate the hazard?

  3. Accept: Do the benefits of accepting the risk outweight the costs?

  4. Mitigate: What can you do to mitigate the risk?

DECIDE Model#

  1. Detect the problem

  2. Estimate the need to react

  3. Choose a course of action

  4. Identify solutions

  5. Do the necessary actions

  6. Evaluate the effects of the actions

Automatic Decision Making#

In some situations, there is not enough time to make decisions based on analytical decision-making skills.

Experts rely on recognition of patterns and experience to clarify options and creative revisions.

Stress Management#

  • There is usually time to think before drawing unnecessary conclusions.

  • To reduce stress levels, learn to manage time more effectively and to avoid pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting deadlines.

Use of Resources#

  • Pilot must be aware of resources both within and without the flight deck

  • Should also know how much time it takes to use the resource, and its impaact on safety of flight

Internal Resources#

  • The passenger is one of the most useful resources, even if not familiar with flying

  • They can be aware of strange smells, watch for traffic, help read checklists, confirm landing gear status, watch for a specific altitude during a descent, etc.

  • When flying alone, another resource is verbal communication. Verbal communication reinforces an activity; touching an object while communicating further increases the likelihood an action has been completed.

  • Many pilots read the checklist out loud, touching the switch or control for critical items.

External Resources#

  • ATC and flight service specialists are the best external resources during flight

  • Services provided by ATC can not only reduce pilot workload, it can also help pilots make informed in-flight decisions.

  • Flight Service Stations (FSS) provide:

    • pilot briefings,

    • en route communications,

    • VFR search and rescue services,

    • assist lost aircraft in emergency situations,

    • relay ATC clearances,

    • originate NOTAMs,

    • broadcast aviation weather,

    • receive and process IFR flight plans,

    • monitor NAVAIDs.

Situational Awareness#

  • Monitoring the radio for traffic, weather discussions, and ATC communication can help build a mental picture of what is happening.

  • Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause a pilot to fixate on a single perceived important item and reduce situational awareness of the flight.

  • Effective workload management ensures essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload.

  • As experience is gained, a pilot learns to recognize future workload requirements and can prepare for high workload periods during low workload periods.

  • When a work overload situation exists, a pilot needs to stop, think, slow down, and prioritize.

SAFETY briefing#

  1. Seatbelts fastened for taxi, takeoff, and landing. Shoulder harnesses fastened for takeoff and landing. Seat position adjusted and locked in place.

  2. Air vents (location and operation). All environmental controls (discussed). Action in case of any passenger discomfort.

  3. Fire extinguisher (location and operation).

  4. Exit doors (how to secure; how to open). Emergency evacuation plan. Emergency/surival kit (location and contents).

  5. Traffic (scanning, spotting, notifying the pilot). Talking (“sterile cockpit” expectations).

  6. Your questions?

You can also discuss with passengers:

  • Flight route altitudes, time en route, destination, weather during flight, expected weather at the destination, controls and what they do, and the general capabilities and limitations of the aircraft.

  • Use a sterile flight deck from the time of departure to the first intermediate altitude and clearance from the local airspace.

  • Use a sterile flight deck during arrival from the first radar vector for approach or descent for approach.

  • Keep the passengers informed during times when the workload is low.

  • Consider using the passenger in the right seat for simple tasks, such as holding the chart.

Automation#

In general aviation, an automated aircraft is primarily comprised of an integrated advanced avionics system including

  • a primary flight display (PFD),

  • a multifunction flight display (MFD),

  • an instrument-certified GPS with traffic and terrain graphics,

  • and a fully integrated autopilot.

This type of aircraft is known as a Technically Advanced Aircraft (TAA).

Don’t become to reliant on automation. It is up to the pilot to maintain basic airmanship skills and use those skills often to maintain proficiency in all tasks.